INDICE: Acknowledgments xi .Chapter 1. Introduction: the Project 1 .1.1. Characterizing a set of infinite size 4 .1.2. Computers and linguistics 5 .1.3. Levels of formalization 6 .1.4. Not applicable 7 .1.4.1. Poetry and plays on words 7 .1.4.2. Stylistics and rhetoric 9 .1.4.3. Anaphora, coreference resolution, and semantic disambiguation 10 .1.4.4. Extralinguistic calculations 12 .1.5. NLP applications 12 .1.5.1. Automatic translation 14 .1.5.2. Part–of–speech (POS) tagging 18 .1.5.3. Linguistic rather than stochastic analysis 27 .1.6. Linguistic formalisms: NooJ 27 .1.7. Conclusion and structure of this book 30 .1.8. Exercises 31 .1.9. Internet links 32 .Part 1. Linguistic Units 35 .Chapter 2. Formalizing the Alphabet 37 .2.1. Bits and bytes 37 .2.2. Digitizing information 39 .2.3. Representing natural numbers 39 .2.3.1. Decimal notation 39 .2.3.2. Binary notation 40 .2.3.3. Hexadecimal notation 41 .2.4. Encoding characters 41 .2.4.1. Standardization of encodings 43 .2.4.2. Accented Latin letters, diacritical marks, and ligatures 45 .2.4.3. Extended ASCII encodings 46 .2.4.4. Unicode 47 .2.5. Alphabetical order 53 .2.6. Classification of characters 56 .2.7. Conclusion 56 .2.8. Exercises 57 .2.9. Internet links 57 .Chapter 3. Defining Vocabulary 59 .3.1. Multiple vocabularies and the evolution of vocabulary 59 .3.2. Derivation 63 .3.2.1. Derivation applies to vocabulary elements 63 .3.2.2. Derivations are unpredictable 64 .3.2.3. Atomicity of derived words 65 .3.3. Atomic linguistic units (ALUs) 67 .3.3.1. Classification of ALUs 67 .3.4. Multiword units versus analyzable sequences of simple words 70 .3.4.1. Semantics 72 .3.4.2. Usage 76 .3.4.3. Transformational analysis 77 .3.5. Conclusion 80 .3.6. Exercises 81 .3.7. Internet links 81 .Chapter 4. Electronic Dictionaries 83 .4.1. Could editorial dictionaries be reused? 83 .4.2. LADL electronic dictionaries 90 .4.2.1. Lexicon–grammar 90 .4.2.2. DELA 93 .4.3. Dubois and Dubois–Charlier electronic dictionaries 94 .4.3.1. The Dictionnaire électronique des mots 95 .4.3.2. Les Verbes Français (LVF) 97 .4.4. Specifications for the construction of an electronic dictionary 99 .4.4.1. One ALU = one lexical entry 99 .4.4.2. Importance of derivation 100 .4.4.3. Orthographic variation 101 .4.4.4. Inflection of simple words, compound words, and expressions 103 .4.4.5. Expressions 104 .4.4.6. Integration of syntax and semantics 104 .4.5. Conclusion 107 .4.6. Exercises 108 .4.7. Internet links 108 .Part 2. Languages, Grammars and Machines 111 .Chapter 5. Languages, Grammars, and Machines 113 .5.1. Definitions 113 .5.1.1. Letters and alphabets 113 .5.1.2. Words and languages 114 .5.1.3. ALU, vocabularies, phrases, and languages 114 .5.1.4. Empty string 115 .5.1.5. Free language 116 .5.1.6. Grammars 116 .5.1.7. Machines 117 .5.2. Generative grammars 118 .5.3. Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy 119 .5.3.1. Linguistic formalisms 122 .5.4. The NooJ approach 124 .5.4.1. A multifaceted approach 124 .5.4.2. Unified notation 125 .5.4.3. Cascading architecture 127 .5.5. Conclusion 127 .5.6. Exercises 128 .5.7. Internet links 129 .Chapter 6. Regular Grammars 131 .6.1. Regular expressions 131 .6.1.1. Some examples of regular expressions 135 .6.2. Finite–state graphs 137 .6.3. Non–deterministic and deterministic graphs 139 .6.4. Minimal deterministic graphs 141 .6.5. Kleene s theorem 142 .6.6. Regular expressions with outputs and finite–state transducers 146 .6.7. Extensions of regular grammars 151 .6.7.1. Lexical symbols 151 .6.7.2. Syntactic symbols 153 .6.7.3. Symbols defined by grammars 154 .6.7.4. Special operators 155 .6.8. Conclusion 159 .6.9. Exercises 159 .6.10. Internet links 159 .Chapter 7. Context–Free Grammars 161 .7.1. Recursion 164 .7.1.1. Right recursion 166 .7.1.2. Left recursion 167 .7.1.3. Middle recursion 168 .7.2. Parse trees 170 .7.3. Conclusion 173 .7.4. Exercises 173 .7.5. Internet links 174 .Chapter 8. Context–Sensitive Grammars 175 .8.1. The NooJ approach 176 .8.1.1. The anbncn language 177 .8.1.2. The language a2n 180 .8.1.3. Handling reduplications 181 .8.1.4. Grammatical agreements 182 .8.1.5. Lexical constraints in morphological grammars 185 .8.2. NooJ contextual constraints 186 .8.3. NooJ variables 188 .8.3.1. Variables scope 188 .8.3.2. Computing a variable s value 189 .8.3.3. Inheriting a variable s value 191 .8.4. Conclusion 191 .8.5. Exercises 192 .8.6. Internet links 192 .Chapter 9. Unrestricted Grammars 195 .9.1. Linguistic adequacy 197 .9.2. Conclusion 199 .9.3. Exercise 199 .9.4. Internet links 199 .Part 3. Automatic Linguistic Parsing 201 .Chapter 10. Text Annotation Structure 205 .10.1. Parsing a text 205 .10.2. Annotations 206 .10.2.1. Limits of XML/TEI representation 207 .10.3. Text annotation structure (TAS) 208 .10.4. Exercise 211 .10.5. Internet links 212 .Chapter 11. Lexical Analysis 213 .11.1. Tokenization 213 .11.1.1. Letter recognition 214 .11.1.2. Apostrophe/quote 217 .11.1.3. Dash/hyphen 219 .11.1.4. Dot/period/point ambiguity 222 .11.2. Word forms 224 .11.2.1. Space and punctuation 224 .11.2.2. Numbers 226 .11.2.3. Words in upper case 228 .11.3. Morphological analyses 229 .11.3.1. Inflectional morphology 230 .11.3.2. Derivational morphology 234 .11.3.3. Lexical morphology 236 .11.3.4. Agglutinations 239 .11.4. Multiword unit recognition 241 .11.5. Recognizing expressions 243 .11.5.1. Characteristic constituent 244 .11.5.2. Varying the characteristic constituent 245 .11.5.3. Varying the light verb 246 .11.5.4. Resolving ambiguity 247 .11.5.5. Annotating expressions 251 .11.6. Conclusion 254 .11.7. Exercise 255 .Chapter 12. Syntactic Analysis 257 .12.1. Local grammars 257 .12.1.1. Named entities 257 .12.1.2. Grammatical word sequences 262 .12.1.3. Automatically identifying ambiguity 263 .12.2. Structural grammars 265 .12.2.1. Complex atomic linguistic units 266 .12.2.2. Structured annotations 268 .12.2.3. Ambiguities 270 .12.2.4. Syntax trees vs parse trees 273 .12.2.5. Dependency grammar and tree 276 .12.2.6. Resolving ambiguity transparently 279 .12.3. Conclusion 280 .12.4. Exercises 281 .12.5. Internet links 281 .Chapter 13. Transformational Analysis 283 .13.1. Implementing transformations 286 .13.2. Theoretical problems 292 .13.2.1. Equivalence of transformation sequences 292 .13.2.2. Ambiguities in transformed sentences 293 .13.2.3. Theoretical sentences 294 .13.2.4. The number of transformations to be implemented 295 .13.3. Transformational analysis with NooJ 297 .13.3.1. Applying a grammar in generation mode 298 .13.3.2. The transformation s arguments 299 .13.4. Question answering 303 .13.5. Semantic analysis 304 .13.6. Machine translation 305 .13.7. Conclusion 309 .13.8. Exercises 309 .13.9. Internet links 310 .Conclusion 311 .Bibliography 315 .Index 327
- ISBN: 978-1-84821-902-1
- Editorial: ISTE Ltd.
- Encuadernacion: Cartoné
- Páginas: 346
- Fecha Publicación: 08/01/2016
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- Idioma: Inglés