Covering both small molecule and polymer solar cells, this book summarizes the state of the art understanding of stability and provides a detailed analysisof the mechanisms by which degradation occurs. Following an introductory chapter which compares different photovoltaic technologies, the book focuses on organic photovoltaics (OPV) degradation, discussing the origin and characterization of the instability and describing measures for extending the duration of operation. This volume is an essential reference source for researchers in academia and industry, engineers and manufacturers working on OPV design, development and implementation. INDICE: List of Contributors xiPreface xiiiAcknowledgements xv1. The Different PV Technologies and How They Degrade 1Frederik C. Krebs1.1 The Photovoltaic Effect and the Overview 11.2 The Photovoltaic Technologies 21.3 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Stability 31.3.1 Intrinsic Stability 31.3.2 Extrinsic Stability 31.4 Degradation - The Culprits, the What, the Why and the How 31.5 Some Representative Technologies and How They Degrade 41.5.1 Mono- and PolycrystallineSilicon Solar Cells 51.5.2 Amorphous, Micro- and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 61.5.3 CIS/CIGS Solar Cells 81.5.4 CdS/CdTe Solar Cells 91.5.5 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC) 101.5.6 Organic and Polymer Solar Cells (OPV) 112. Chemical and Physical Probes for Studying Degradation 17Birgitta Andreasen andKion Norrman2.1 Introduction 172.2 Physical Probes 182.2.1 UV-vis Spectroscopy 182.2.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 182.2.3 Interference Microscopy 202.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 212.2.5 Fluorescence Microscopy 232.2.6 Light-Beam Induced-Current Microscopy (LBIC) 242.2.7 Electroluminescence and Photoluminescence Imaging Microscopy (ELI and PLI) 252.2.8 X-ray Reflectometry 262.3 Chemical Probes 272.3.1 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 272.3.2 Time-of-FlightSecondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) 282.3.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 322.4 Summary and Outlook 353. Imaging Techniques for Studying OPV Stability and Degradation 39Marco Seeland, Roland R¨osch and Harald Hoppe3.1Introduction to Imaging Techniques 393.1.1 Microscopy and Optical Scanning 393.1.2 Luminescence Imaging 403.1.3 Lock-In Thermography 433.1.4 Light-Beam Induced Current 453.2 Reports 463.2.1 Background: Degradation of OLED Devices 463.2.2 Light-Beam Induced Current 503.2.3 Luminescence Imaging 543.2.4 Optical Microscopy 573.2.5 Dark Lock-In Thermography and LBIC 583.2.6 Dark Lock-In Thermography and Optical Scanning for Failure Analysis 623.3 Discussion: Comparison of Imaging Techniques 633.4 Summary 664. Photochemical Stability of Materials for OPV 71Matthieu Manceau, Agnes Rivaton and Jean-Luc Gardette4.1 Introduction 714.2 Methods 724.2.1 Aging Condition 724.2.1.1 Natural and Artificial Accelerated Aging 724.2.1.2 Temperature Effect 734.2.1.3 Atmosphere Composition 744.2.2 Degradation Monitoring 744.2.2.1 Spectroscopies 754.2.2.2 Microscopies 804.3 State-of-the-Art 824.3.1 Degradation of the Ï€-Conjugated Polymer 824.3.1.1 Study of the Pioneers: MDMO-PPV and P3HT 824.3.1.2 Material Chemical Structure vs. Material Stability 904.3.2 Acceptor Material Aging and Blend Degradation 994.3.2.1 Acceptor Degradation 994.3.2.2 Blend Degradation 995. Degradation of Small-Molecule-Based OPV 109Martin Hermenau, Moritz Riede and Karl Leo5.1Comparison to Small-Molecule OLEDs 1105.1.1 Number of Photoexcitations per Molecule 1135.2 Comparison to Polymer Solar Cells 1155.2.1 Sensitivity to Air 1155.2.2 Temperature Stability 1155.3 Small-Molecule Organic Materials 1165.3.1 Active Materials 1165.3.1.1 Fullerene C60 1165.3.1.2 Phthalocyanines 1175.3.1.3 Pentacene 1175.3.2 Transport- and Exciton-Blocking Materials 1195.3.2.1 Electron-Transport Materials 1195.3.2.2 Hole-Transport Materials 1235.4 Degradation Conditions 1255.4.1 Oxygen and Water 1255.4.2 UV Radiation 1325.5 State-of-the-Art in Lifetime Studies 1345.6 Summary and Outlook 1386. Degradation of Polymer-Based OPV 143Mikkel Jørgensen and Frederik C. Krebs6.1 Focus on the Degradation and Stability of Polymer Solar Cells 1436.2 A Chart of Degradation andStability of Polymer Solar Cells 1436.3 A Short Account of the OPV Stability/Degradation History 1446.3.1 The Divisions of Degradation Mechanisms 1466.3.2 The Methodologies 1486.4 Modus Operandi for Evolving OPV 1486.5 The Recent Developments 1496.5.1 The Photocatalytic Oxides 1496.5.2 Interlayers 1506.5.3 TheInverted Structure 1516.5.4 R2R Processing 1526.5.5 Lamination and Encapsulation 1536.5.6 Water Processing 1546.5.7 Mechanical Degradation - Delamination 1556.6 Interlaboratory Studies and Round Robins 1566.7 Outside Studies 1576.8 How Far Can OPV Be Taken in Terms of Stability 1587. Test Equipment for OPV Stability 163Olivier Haillant7.1 Introduction 1637.2 Reliability and Durability Testing of PV Products 1657.2.1 Reliability, a Function of Durability 1657.2.2 Environmental Durability 1667.2.3 Durability and Weathering Testing 1677.3 Laboratory Weathering Testing 1687.3.1 Acceleration 1687.3.2 Relevance 1697.3.3 Precision 1707.3.4 Introduction to Determination of Acceleration Factors 1707.3.4.1 Acceleration of Photochemically and ThermallyActivated Processes 1717.3.4.2 Acceleration Related to Thermal Fatigue 1717.4 Durability Testing Techniques 1727.4.1 Outdoor Weathering 1727.4.1.1 Static and Dynamic Outdoor Exposure 1727.4.1.2 Accelerated Outdoor Exposure 1747.4.1.3 Companies Servicing Outdoor Exposure 1757.4.2 Laboratory Weathering 1757.4.2.1 Introduction 1757.4.2.2 Filtered xenon arc 1787.4.2.3 Metal Halide 1797.4.3 Laboratory Photoaging 1807.4.3.1 Mercury Arc 1807.4.3.2 Fluorescent UV Lamps 1817.4.4 Others 1837.4.4.1 Light-Soaking Techniques 1837.4.4.2 UV Concentrators 1837.4.4.3 Carbon Arc 1857.5Conclusion 1858. Characterization and Reporting of OPV Device Lifetime 193Suren A. Gevorgyan8.1 Introduction 1938.2 Photoelectric Characterization of OPV Devices 1948.2.1 Photoelectric Characterization Tools 1948.2.2 Characterizationin Controlled Environments 1978.3 Interlaboratory Studies of OPVs 2028.3.1 Introduction 2028.3.2 Interlaboratory Studies of Flexible Large-Area Roll-to-Roll Processed Polymer Solar Cell Modules 2038.3.3 Interlaboratory Stability Studies of OPVs 2048.4 Lifetime Testing and Reporting: Standardized Approach 2138.4.1 Introduction 2138.4.2 Procedures for Standard Lifetime Measurements 2148.4.3 Reporting Lifetime 2358.5 Conclusions 2389. Concentrated Light for Organic Photovoltaics 243By Thomas Tromholt9.1 Introduction 2439.2 Light-ConcentrationSetups 2459.2.1 Refractive Sunlight Concentration 2459.2.2 Reflective Sunlight Concentration 2469.2.3 Concentrated Solar Simulation 2499.3 Experimental Work Performed with Concentrated Light 2519.3.1 IPV Response to Concentrated Sunlight 2519.3.2 Polymer Response to Concentrated Light 2539.3.3 Organic Solar Cell Response to Concentrated Light 2579.4 Physical Characterization by Concentrated Sunlight 2619.5 Conclusion 26510. Barrier Technology and Applications 269Lars Muller-Meskamp, John Fahlteich and Frederik Krebs10.1 Encapsulation Requirements 26910.1.1 Types of Encapsulation 27010.1.2 Glass/Glass Encapsulation 27110.1.3 Lamination of Barrier Films 27210.1.4 Thin-Film Encapsulation 27310.1.5 Perimeter Sealing 27310.2 Thin-Film Permeation Physics 27410.2.1 Solid-State Diffusion and Diffusion in Polymers 27410.2.2 Fick's First Law of Diffusion 27510.2.3 Sorption 27610.2.4 Permeation in Thin Films 27710.2.5 Models for thePermeation-Coated Polymer Films 27810.2.6 Temperature Dependence of Permeation 27910.2.7 Dependence of Water Permeation on Layer Thickness 28010.2.8 Time Dependence of Permeation 28210.2.9 Permeation in Multilayer Barriers 28410.2.10Pinholes in Multilayer Systems 28710.3 Measurement of Barrier Properties 28810.3.1 Gravimetric Cup 28910.3.2 Carrier-Gas-Based Coulometric Barrier Measurement 28910.3.3 Mass Spectrometer 29010.3.4 Direct Pressure Measurement 29110.3.5 Radioactive Isotopes 29210.3.6 Calcium Test (Optical or Electrical) 29310.3.7 Device Testing 29410.3.8 Standards and Typical Measurement Conditions 29510.3.9 Test Method Overview 29510.4 Barrier Technologies 29510.4.1 Single-Layer Technologies 29710.4.1.1 Reactive Evaporation 29710.4.1.2 Magnetron Sputtering 29810.4.1.3 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) 30210.4.1.4 Atomic-Layer Deposition (ALD) 30610.4.1.5 Summary of Single-Layer Technologies 30910.4.2 Multilayer Technologies 30910.5 Barrier Application in OPV 31510.5.1 Products 31610.5.2 Barrier Cost and Manufacturability 31810.6 Conclusion 321References 32211. Summary and Outlook 331Frederik C. KrebsIndex 333
- ISBN: 978-1-119-95251-0
- Editorial: John Wiley & Sons
- Encuadernacion: Cartoné
- Páginas: 360
- Fecha Publicación: 06/04/2012
- Nº Volúmenes: 1
- Idioma: Inglés