High Voltage Direct Current Transmission: Converters, Systems and DC Grids

This comprehensive reference guides the reader through all HVDC technologies, including LCC (Line Commutated Converter), 2–level VSC and VSC HVDC based on modular multilevel converters (MMC) for an in–depth understanding of converters, system level design, operating principles and modeling. Written in a tutorial style, the book also describes the key principles of design, control, protection and operation of DC transmission grids, which will be substantially different from the practice with AC transmission grids. The first dedicated reference to the latest HVDC technologies and DC grid developments; this is an essential resource for graduate students and researchers as well as engineers and professionals working on the design, modeling and operation of DC grids and HVDC. Key features:           Provides comprehensive coverage of LCC, VSC and (half and full bridge) MMC–based VSC technologies and DC transmission grids.           Presents phasor and dynamic analytical models for each HVDC technology and DC grids.           Includes HVDC protection, studies of DC and AC faults, as well as system–level studies of AC–DC interactions and impact on AC grids for each HVDC technology.           Companion website hosts SIMULINK SimPowerSystems models with examples for all HVDC topologies. INDICE: Contents .Preface xi .Part I HVDC with Current Source Converters 1 .1 Introduction to Line–Commutated HVDC 3 .1.1 HVDC Applications 3 .1.2 Line–Commutated HVDC Components 5 .1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines 6 .1.4 LCC HVDC Topologies 7 .1.5 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems 9 .1.6 Conversion of AC Lines to DC 10 .1.7 Ultra–High Voltage HVDC 10 .2 Thyristors 12 .2.1 Operating Characteristics 12 .2.2 Switching Characteristic 13 .2.3 Losses in HVDC Thyristors 17 .2.4 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers 20 .2.5 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability 22 .3 Six–Pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter 23 .3.1 Three–Phase Uncontrolled Bridge 23 .3.2 Three–Phase Thyristor Rectifier 25 .3.3 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor Converter 26 .3.4 Active and Reactive Power in a Three–Phase Thyristor Converter 30 .3.5 Inverter Operation 31 .4 HVDC Rectifier Station Modelling, Control and Synchronization with AC Systems 35 .4.1 HVDC Rectifier Controller 35 .4.2 Phase–Locked Loop (PLL) 36 .5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 40 .5.1 Inverter Controller 40 .5.2 Commutation Failure 42 .6 HVDC System V–I Diagrams and Operating Modes 45 .6.1 HVDC–Equivalent Circuit 45 .6.2 HVDC V–I Operating Diagram 45 .6.3 HVDC Power Reversal 48 .7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 53 .7.1 Introduction to Converters and HVDC Modelling 53 .7.2 HVDC Analytical Model 54 .7.3 CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model 56 .7.4 Converter Modelling, Linearization and Gain Scheduling 56 .7.5 AC System Modelling for HVDC Stability Studies 58 .7.6 LCC Converter Transformer Model 62 .7.7 DC System Model 63 .7.8 HVDC–HVAC System Model 65 .7.9 Analytical Dynamic Model Verification 65 .7.10 Basic HVDC Dynamic Analysis 66 .7.11 HVDC Second Harmonic Instability 70 .7.12 Oscillations of 100 Hz on the DC Side 71 .8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 72 .8.1 Converter and DC System Phasor Model 72 .8.2 Phasor AC System Model and Interaction with the DC System 73 .8.3 Inverter AC Voltage and Power Profile as DC Current is Increasing 75 .8.4 Influence of Converter Extinction Angle 76 .8.5 Influence of Shunt Reactive Power Compensation 78 .8.6 Influence of Load at the Converter Terminals 78 .8.7 Influence of Operating Mode (DC Voltage Control Mode) 78 .8.8 Rectifier Operating Mode 80 .9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 82 .9.1 Introduction 82 .9.2 Short–Circuit Ratio and Equivalent Short–Circuit Ratio 82 .9.3 Power Transfer between Two AC Systems 85 .9.4 Phasor Study of Converter Interactions with Weak AC Systems 89 .9.5 System Dynamics (Small Signal Stability) with Low SCR 90 .9.6 Control and Main Circuit Solutions for Weak AC Grids 90 .9.7 LCC HVDC with SVC (Static VAR Compensator) 91 .9.8 Capacitor–Commutated Converters for HVDC 93 .9.9 AC System with Low Inertia 93 .10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 98 .10.1 Introduction 98 .10.2 DC Line Faults 98 .10.3 AC System Faults 101 .10.4 System Reconfiguration for Permanent DC Faults 103 .10.5 Overvoltage Protection 106 .11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 107 .11.1 Harmonic Performance Criteria 107 .11.2 Harmonic Limits 108 .11.3 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 109 .11.4 Harmonic Filters 110 .11.5 Noncharacteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 118 .Bibliography Part I Line Commutated Converter HVDC 119 .Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 121 .12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies, Performance and Cost Comparison with LCC HVDC 123 .12.1 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 123 .12.2 Comparison with Line–Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC 125 .12.3 Overhead and Subsea/Underground VSC HVDC Transmission 126 .12.4 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 129 .12.5 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 129 .12.6 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 130 .12.7 VSC HVDC Station Components 135 .12.8 AC Reactors 139 .12.9 DC Reactors 139 .13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 141 .13.1 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 141 .13.2 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 142 .13.3 IGBT Technology 142 .13.4 Development of High Power IGBT Devices 147 .13.5 IEGT Technology 148 .13.6 Losses Calculation 148 .13.7 Balancing Challenges in Series IGBT Chains 154 .13.8 Snubbers Circuits 155 .14 Single–Phase and Three–Phase Two–Level VSC Converters 156 .14.1 Introduction 156 .14.2 Single–Phase Voltage Source Converter 156 .14.3 Three–Phase Voltage Source Converter 159 .14.4 Square–Wave, Six–Pulse Operation 159 .15 Two–Level PWM VSC Converters 167 .15.1 Introduction 167 .15.2 PWM Modulation 167 .15.3 Sinusoidal Pulse–Width Modulation (SPWM) 168 .15.4 Third Harmonic Injection (THI) 171 .15.5 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 172 .15.6 Converter Losses for Two–Level SPWM VSC 173 .15.7 Harmonics with Pulse–Width Modulation (PWM) 175 .15.8 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 178 .16 Multilevel VSC Converters 180 .16.1 Introduction 180 .16.2 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 182 .16.3 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 183 .16.4 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 185 .16.5 H–Bridge Cascaded Converter 186 .16.6 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 187 .16.7 MMC Based on Full Bridge Topology 200 .16.8 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 208 .17 Two–Level PWM VSC HVDC Modelling, Control and Dynamics 209 .17.1 PWM Two–Level Converter Average Model 209 .17.2 Two–Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 210 .17.3 VSC Converter Transformer Model 212 .17.4 Two–Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 213 .17.5 Two–Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating Coordinate Frame 213 .17.6 VSC Converter Control Principles 214 .17.7 The Inner Current Controller Design 215 .17.8 Outer Controller Design 218 .17.9 Complete VSC Converter Controller 221 .17.10 Small–Signal Linearized VSC HVDC Model 224 .17.11 Small–Signal Dynamic Studies 224 .18 Two–Level VSC HVDC Phasor–Domain Interaction with AC Systems and PQ Operating Diagrams 226 .18.1 Power Exchange between Two AC Voltage Sources 226 .18.2 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 230 .18.3 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 232 .18.4 Operating Limits 234 .18.5 Design Point Selection 236 .18.6 Influence of AC System Strength 239 .18.7 Influence of Transformer Reactance 243 .18.8 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 247 .19 Half Bridge MMC Converter: Modelling, Control and Operating PQ Diagrams 254 .19.1 Half Bridge MMC Converter Average Model in ABC Frame 254 .19.2 Half–Bridge MMC Converter–Static DQ Frame and Phasor Model 257 .19.3 Differential Current at Second Harmonic 262 .19.4 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 263 .19.5 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 264 .19.6 DQ Frame Model of MMC with Circulating Current Controller 267 .19.7 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 269 .19.8 Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 270 .19.9 Full Dynamic Analytical MMC Model 273 .19.10 MMC Converter Controller 275 .19.11 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 275 .19.12 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System and PQ Operating Diagrams 277 .20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 280 .20.1 Introduction 280 .20.2 Faults on the AC System 280 .20.3 DC Faults with Two–Level VSC 281 .20.4 Influence of DC Capacitors 286 .20.5 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 287 .20.6 Converter–Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 294 .20.7 DC Faults with Half–Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 294 .20.8 DC Faults with Full–Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 298 .21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation with Passive AC Systems 302 .21.1 VSC HVDC High–Level Controls and AC Grid Support 302 .21.2 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 303 .21.3 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 304 .21.4 HVDC in Parallel with AC 304 .21.5 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 305 .21.6 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 305 .21.7 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW–Size Variable–Speed Motor 307 .Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 309 .Part III DC Transmission Grids 311 .22 Introduction to DC Grids 313 .22.1 DC versus AC Transmission 313 .22.2 Terminology 314 .22.3 DC Grid Planning, Topology and Power–Transfer Security 314 .22.4 Technical Challenges 315 .22.5 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 316 .22.6 Economic Aspects 316 .23 DC Grids with Line–Commutated Converters 317 .23.1 Multiterminal HVDC 317 .23.2 Italy Corsica Sardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 318 .23.3 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 319 .23.4 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 321 .23.5 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 321 .23.6 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 323 .23.7 Reactive Power Issues 325 .23.8 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 325 .24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power–Flow Model 326 .24.1 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 326 .24.2 DC Grid Power Flow Model 327 .24.3 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 331 .25 DC Grid Control 334 .25.1 Introduction 334 .25.2 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 334 .25.3 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 336 .25.4 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 337 .25.5 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 338 .25.6 Three–Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 339 .25.7 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 340 .25.8 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid–Test System 344 .26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 349 .26.1 Introduction 349 .26.2 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 350 .26.3 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 352 .26.4 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 352 .26.5 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 355 .26.6 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 359 .26.7 DC Grid–Protection System Development 361 .26.8 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or Travelling Wave Identification 362 .26.9 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 363 .26.10 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 364 .26.11 DC Grids with DC Fault–Tolerant VSC Converters 365 .27 High Power DC/DC Converters and DC Power–Flow Controlling Devices 372 .27.1 Introduction 372 .27.2 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 373 .27.3 Low Stepping–Ratio DC/DC Converters 376 .27.4 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DC/DC Converter 383 .27.5 High Stepping Ratio LCL DC/DC Converter 383 .27.6 Building DC Grids with DC/DC Converters 385 .27.7 DC Hubs 387 .27.8 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 390 .27.9 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 390 .Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 394 .Appendix A Variable Notations 396 .Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 398 .Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 409 .Appendix D Simulink Examples 411 .Index 000

• ISBN: 978-1-118-84666-7
• Editorial: Wiley–Blackwell
• Encuadernacion: Cartoné
• Páginas: 350
• Fecha Publicación: 02/10/2015
• Nº Volúmenes: 1
• Idioma: Inglés